2020年碳定价的现状和趋势（英文）-世界银行-2020.6-109页

Washington DC, May 2020 State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2020State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2020 Washington DC, May 2020 The preparation of this report was led by the World Bank, with the support of Guidehouse and with contributions from the International Carbon Action Partnership. We also acknowledge support from CDP and the Institute for Climate Economics for the preparation of this report. The World Bank task team responsible for this report was composed of Marissa Santikarn, Angela Naneu Churie Kallhauge, Suneira Rana, Daniel Besley and Joseph Pryor. The Guidehouse team included Maurice Quant, Long Lam, Jialiang Zhang, Louis Mark, Cara Merusi and Ian Trim. The report benefited greatly from the valuable contributions and perspectives of our colleagues in the climate and carbon finance community, who have ensured the quality and clarity of this report: William Acworth, Erik van Andel, Nicolette Bartlett, Tanguy de Bienassis, Ben Blank, Breen Byrnes, Karan Capoor, Cyril Cassisa, Mavis Chan, Timila Dhakhwa, Ana Maria Dias, Dominik Englert, Susana Escária, Marion Fetet, Harikumar Gadde, Dida Gardera, Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Research Center of Korea, Stephane Hallegatte, Larry Hegan, Jason Hollett, Dorine Hugenholtz, Ešef Husic, Peter Janoska, Yuji Jigata, Junaed Khan, Emma Krause, Francisco Dall Orso León, Jeff Lindberg, Emídio Lopes, Andréane Lussier, Memory Machingambi, Paul Martin, Taisei Matsuki, Dylan Morgan, Sarah Moyer, Klaus Oppermann, Ian Parry, Janet Peace, Sébastien Postic, Québec Ministry of the Environment and the Fight against Climate Change, Luca Lo Re, Marcos Castro Rodriguez, Stephanie Rogers, Stephan Schmidt, Catherine Sear, Juan Pedro Searle, Kensuke Suda, UNFCCC Secretariat, Elisabeth Vitzthum, Olga Yukhymchuk. This report was supported through the Carbon Pricing Leadership Coalition and Partnership for Market Readiness Programs. © 2020 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 23 22 21 20 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images. All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to the Publishing and Knowledge Division, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. ISBN (electronic): 978-1-4648-1586-7 DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1586-7 Picture credits: page 14: © gustavofrazao / Adobe Stock. page 18: © Flexmedia / Adobe Stock. page 46: © FocalPoint / shutterstock.com. page 84: © mayichao / istockphoto.com. page 96: © Mieszko9 / Adobe Stock. Further permission required for reuse. Cover and interior design: Meike Naumann Visuelle KommunikationIt is hard to focus on anything other than the current global health crisis. COVID-19 has upended our societies and the loss of normalcy, human connection and the economic toll is not to be underestimated. Unfortunately, even after countries embark on the path to recovery after this crisis, the threat of climate change remains. Bush fires raged across California and Australia at the beginning of this year, the coral reef suffered a third mass bleaching in five years and Antarctica experienced the first known heatwave. In the last year, growing public and investor pressure has moved climate change further up the agenda. As a result, we saw increased attention and efforts to address climate change around the world. More than 70 countries have committed to working toward net zero emissions by 2050 and to enhance their international climate pledges under the Paris Agreement. How these government and private sector pledges will be translated into action will be crucial in ensuring we can confine global warming to below two degrees Celsius. An effective carbon price is one tool that can help both countries and companies to successfully decarbonize economies and supply chains. Encouragingly, as more ambitious climate pledges are taken, many of these programs and strategies are factoring in the role and potential for carbon pricing and carbon markets. While we may understand the economic theory of carbon pricing: make something more expensive and we will use less of it – the ramifications of shifting to a low-carbon economy will likely require a significant restructure of our economies and societies. The low-carbon transition must have public support and be socially just. Carefully planning these policies, including carbon pricing, and proactive communication on the benefits they can bring to our communities, workers and environment, will be critical. Emissions reductions can bring significant health benefits, while revenue generated from a carbon price needs to be focused on long term solutions. These carbon revenues can be used support other development policies to meet critical infrastructure and education. Furthermore, as traditional means of business and production may be disrupted when these climate policies ramp up, a plan to support these communities will also be important. Each year, we at the World Bank prepare this report to update readers on the developments in carbon pricing around the world. In this year’s report we also look at the role and use of crediting mechanisms. Over recent years, there has been a surge of public and private interest in carbon credits as part of a broader decarbonization portfolio. Countries are increasingly pairing their domestic carbon taxes and carbon markets with a crediting mechanism to stimulate action and investments in certain sectors, while giving governments and businesses some flexibility in tackling emissions in hard to abate sectors. Companies are also purchasing credits on the voluntary market in line with growing investor and consumer awareness of climate action. Internationally, credits will also play a key role in reducing emissions from airlines with the international aviation offset scheme – CORSIA – coming into effect this year. However, robust standards are critical to ensuring these credits have environmental integrity. The World Bank is committed to supporting countries as they assess and put carbon pricing policies in place. A well-designed carbon price embedded in a broader package of climate, energy and development policies and measures remains critical to solving the climate challenge and advancing the achievement of sustainable development aspirations. Bernice Van Bronkhorst, Climate Change Global Director, World Bank Group Foreword 1IMF International Monetary Fund IMO International Maritime Organization IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISFL Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes ITMO Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcome J-VER Japan Verified Emission Reduction JCM Joint Crediting Mechanism JI Joint Implementation KliK Climate Protection and Carbon Offset Foundation KOC Korean Offset Credits ktCO 2 e Kiloton of carbon dioxide equivalent MDB Multilateral development bank MoU Memorandum of understanding MRV Monitoring, Reporting and Verification MSR Market stability reserve MtCO 2 e Megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent N 2 O Nitrous oxide NACAG Nitric Acid Action Group NACAP Nitric Acid Climate Auctions Program NDC Nationally Determined Contribution NDRC National Development and Reform Commission NWT Northwest Territories NZU New Zealand Unit OBPS Output-Based Pricing System OMGE Overall Mitigation in Global Emissions OPR Offset Project Registry PAF Pilot Auction Facility PFC Perfluorocarbon PHCER Pu Hui Certified Emission Reduction PMR Partnership for Market Readiness PoA Programme of Activities RBCF Results-based Climate Finance REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation REDD+ Extends REDD by including sustainable forest management, conservation of forests, and enhancement of carbon sinks RGGI Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ROC Registry Offset Credits SB Senate Bill SCF Standardized Crediting Framework SDG Sustainable Development Goal SD VISta Sustainable Development Verified Impact Standard SEMAR NAT Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources t Ton (note that, unless specified otherwise, ton in this report refers to a metric ton = 1,000 kg) TAB Technical Advisory Board TCAF Transformative Carbon Asset Facility TCFD Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures TCI Transportation and Climate Initiative tCO 2 Ton of carbon dioxide tCO 2 e Ton of carbon dioxide equivalent TIER Technology Innovation and Emissions Reduction TMG Tokyo Metropolitan Government UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USA United States of America VCS Verified Carbon Standard VCU Verified Carbon Unit VER Verified Emissions Reduction WTO World Trade Organization 3Table of contents Foreword 1 List of abbrevations and acronyms 2 Executive summary 6 1. Introduction 14 2. Regional, national, and subnational carbon pricing initiatives 18 2.1 Recent developments, future and emerging trends 19 2.2 Detailed overview of carbon pricing initiatives 29 3. Carbon crediting mechanisms 46 3.1 The concept and role of crediting mechanisms in climate action 47 3.2 Carbon crediting trends 50 3.3 Overview of crediting mechanisms 58 3.3.1 International mechanisms 59 3.3.2 Major independent crediting mechanisms 61 3.3.3 Regional, national and subnational crediting mechanisms 65 4. International carbon pricing initiatives 84 4.1 NDCs under the Paris Agreement 85 4.2 International carbon pricing initiatives associated with the Paris Agreement 87 4.3 Results-based climate finance (RBCF) 91 4.4 International aviation 93 4.5 International shipping 95 5. Internal carbon pricing 96 Appendix A, Exchange rates 101 Appendix B, Detailed overview of carbon pricing initiatives in the Canadian provinces and territories 102Figures Figure ES.1 Carbon pricing initiatives implemented, scheduled for implementation and under consideration (ETS and carbon tax) 10 Figure ES.2 Share of global emissions covered by carbon pricing initiatives (ETS and carbon tax) 11 Figure ES.3 Prices in implemented carbon pricing initiatives 12 Figure ES.4 Carbon price, share of emissions covered and carbon pricing revenues of implemented carbon pricing initiatives 13 Figure 2.1 Carbon pricing initiatives implemented, scheduled for implementation and under consideration (ETS and carbon tax) 24 Figure 2.2 Share of global emissions covered by carbon pricing initiatives (ETS and carbon tax) 25 Figure 2.3 Prices in implemented carbon pricing initiatives 26 Figure 2.4 Carbon price and emissions coverage of implemented carbon pricing initiatives 27 Figure 2.5 Carbon price, share of emissions covered and carbon pricing revenues of implemented carbon pricing initiatives 28 Figure 2.6 Carbon pricing initiatives implemented or scheduled for implementation, with sectoral coverage and GHG emissions covered 45 Figure 3.1 High-level example of how carbon crediting works 48 Figure 3.2 Total credit issuance volumes by registry, sector, and region as of December 31, 2019 52 Figure 3.3 Annual number of projects and issuances of covered crediting mechanisms for 2002–2019 54 Figure 3.4 Annual volume of issuances by crediting mechanism for 2015–2019 56 Figure 3.5 Issuance volumes in ktonCO 2 e by sector and type of mechanism for 2015–2019 57 Figure 3.6 Status of regional, national and subnational crediting mechanisms 66 Figure 4.1 Status of net zero CO 2 emissions targets by country 85 Figure 5.1 Objectives for implementing an internal carbon price 98 Tables Table 2.1 Type and status of carbon pricing initiatives in the Canadian provinces and territories 30 Table 2.2 Key carbon pricing developments in individual US States 41 Table 3.1 Sector map of crediting activities 51 Table 3.2 Description of the overview table for carbon crediting mechanisms 58 Table A.1 Currency conversion rates, as of April 1, 2020 101 Table B.1 Carbon pricing developments in the Canadian provinces and territories 102 Boxes Box ES.1 Carbon pricing in numbers 9 Box 2.1 COVID-19 impacts on carbon pricing 21 Box 2.2 Coalition of Finance Ministers for Climate Action 22 Box 2.3 Carbon border adjustment mechanisms 23 Box 2.4 Summary of selected changes in regional, national and subnational carbon pricing initiatives 43 Box 3.1 Crediting under the Paris Agreement 49 Box 3.2 Example of best practice principles on carbon credits