世界核电厂运行实绩报告2022（英）-世界核协会.pdf

World Nuclear Performance Report 2022Title: World Nuclear Performance Report 2022 Produced by: World Nuclear Association Published: July 2022 Report No. 2022/003 Cover image: Hinkley Point C (EDF Energy) World Nuclear Association is grateful to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for access to its Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) database, used in the preparation of this report. Country Pages data correct as of 1 July 2022. © 2022 World Nuclear Association. Registered in England and Wales, company number 01215741 This report reflects the views of industry experts but does not necessarily represent those of the World Nuclear Association’s individual member organizations.Contents Preface 3 1. Nuclear Industry Performance 4 2. Case Studies Constructing a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor 14 Barakah: a powerhouse for the UAE’s sustainable development 16 Hinkley Point C: Build and Repeat 18 Designing and build ing the first land-based SMR 20 3. Country Pages 22 4. Nuclear Reactor Global Status 58 5. Director General’s Concluding Remarks 60 Abbreviations and T erminology 62 Definition of Capacity F actor 62 Geographical Categories 63 Further Reading 64 13 Nuclear generation bounced back from the pandemic-related decline seen in 2020, increasing by 100 TWh to reach 2653 TWh in 2021. However, this positive development must be put into the context of the upheaval there has been in global energy supply over the last 12 months. While governments redoubled their commitments to reducing greenhouse gas emissions at COP26 in Glasgow, the recovery of economies following the harsh impacts of COVID-19 led to a surge in energy demand that outstripped the growth in production from clean sources such as nuclear, resulting in more reliance on fossil fuels. The war in Ukraine has made vividly clear the fragility of the fossil fuel supply chain, underscoring concerns that were already exposed as a consequence of the pandemic. In many regions energy prices are rising, fuel ing inflation and worsening energy poverty. Fearful of losing access to gas imports and facing blackouts and energy shortages, governments are cal l ing on coal-fired power plants to restart. While such short-term actions may be necessary in the midst of a crisis, they are unsustainable. It is therefore welcome that many governments are now realizing that nuclear energy can propel the drive to net-zero emissions and be the foundation of a more secure energy system. The challenge now is to take the concrete actions needed to turn those policy aspirations into operating nuclear power plants. The increase in nuclear generation in 2021 flatters the fact that there has been a decl ine in global nuclear capacity over the last two years. In other words: more reactors are being closed down than are starting up. T o reverse this trend, two things need to happen. First, reactors that are operating successfully today need to operate for longer. T oo many of the reactor closures of the last few years have been motivated by political reasons or by dysfunctional markets. Long-term operation of nuclear reactors is the lowest cost form of additional low-carbon generation and helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Second, the pace of new nuclear construction must increase. In 202 1 first concrete was poured for ten new reactors. Although that is better than in recent years, we still need to see twenty, thirty or more new reactor construction starts per year soon, to ensure that nuclear energy plays the role it should in delivering a secure and sustainable net-zero future. Preface Sama Bilbao y León Director General World Nuclear Association4 1.1 Global highlights Nuclear reactors generated a total of 2653 TWh in 2021, up 100 TWh from 2553 TWh in 2020. This is the third highest ever total for global generation from nuclear, just short of the 2657 TWh output of 2019 and 2660 TWh in 2006, and reestablishes the upward trend in nuclear generation seen since 2012, following a decline in 2020. In 2021 nuclear generation increased in Africa, Asia, East Europe & Russia, and in South America. These increases continued upward trends seen in recent years in those regions. Generation also increased in West and Central Europe, but in this region the overall trend remains downward. Generation declined for the second year running in North America as more reactors in the USA were closed. Figure 1. Nuclear electricity production Source: World Nuclear Association and IAEA Power Reactor Information Service (PRIS) 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1970 1976 1973 1982 1979 1991 1994 1988 1985 1997 2006 2009 2003 2000 2012 2015 2018 2021 Nuclear generation (TWh)  West & Central Europe  South America  North America  East Europe & Russia  Asia  Africa 1 Nuclear Industry Performance Figure 2. Regional generation Source: World Nuclear Association and IAEA Power Reactor Information Service (PRIS) 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1970 1976 1973 1982 1979 1991 1994 1988 1985 1997 2006 2009 2003 2000 2012 2015 2018 2021 Nuclear generation (TWh)  West & Central Europe  South America  North America  East Europe & Russia  Asia  Africa5 Although the end of year capacity of operable reactors was up in 2021, the total number of reactors was 436, down five on 2020. Nearly 70% of al l operable reactors are pressurized water reactors (PWRs), with all except one of the 34 reactors that have started up between 2017 and 2021 being PWRs. In 2021 the end of year capacity of operable nuclear power plants was 396 GWe, down 1 GWe on 2020. The total capacity of reactors producing electricity in 2021 was 370 GWe, up 1 GWe from 2020. This is the highest ever total capacity of reactors generating electricity in one year. In most years, a small number of operable reactors do not generate electricity . In recent years the figure has been higher , as reactors in Japan await approval to restart following the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011. As some Japanese reactors have now restarted, and others have been permanently shut down, the total number of reactors operable, but not generating, has gradually reduced. Figure 3. Nuclear generation capacity operable (net) 370 GWe of nuclear capacity produced electricity in 2021, the highest ever Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Nuclear capacity (GWe) 1970 1976 1973 1982 1979 1991 1994 1988 1985 1997 2006 2009 2003 2000 2012 2015 2018 2021  Not operating  Operating T able 1. Operable nuclear power reactors at year-end 2021 Africa Asia East Europe & Russia North America South America West & Central Europe Total BWR 20 33 8 61 FNR 2 2 GCR 11 11 HTGR 1 1 LWGR 11 11 PHWR 24 19 3 2 48 PWR 2 99 40 61 2 98 302 Total 2 144 53 113 5 119 436 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS6 1.2 Operational performance Capacity factors in this section are based on the performance of those reactors reporting electricity generation during each calendar year. In 2021 the global average capacity factor was 82.4%, up from 80.3% in 2020. This continues the trend of high global capacity factors seen since 2000. Figure 4. Global average capacity factor Figure 5. Capacity factor by reactor type Capacity factors for different reactor types in 2021 were broadly consistent with those achieved in the previous five years. The UK s AGRs currently r epresent the entirety of the gas-cooled reactor category, and all are expected to have shut down by the end of the 2020s. Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Capacity factor (%) 100 80 60 40 20 0 1970 1975 1980 1990 1985 2000 1995 2010 2005 2015 2020 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Capacity factor (%) 100 80 60 40 20 0 FNR GCR BWR LWGR PHWR PWR  2016-2020  20217 Capacity factors in 2021 for reactors in different geographical regions were also broad ly consistent with the average achieved in the previous five years, with North America maintaining the highest average capacity factors. Figure 6. Capacity factor by region There is no age-related decline in nuclear reactor performance. The mean capacity factor for reactors over the last five years shows no significant overall variation with age. Improvements in average global capacity factors have been achieved in reactors of all ages, not just new reactors of more advanced designs. Figure 7. Mean capacity factor 2017-2021 by age of reactor Demonstrating high capacity factors for reactors of all ages strengthens the case for extending the operation of the current nuclear fleet. Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Africa West & Central Europe South America North America East Europe & Russia Asia 100 80 60 40 20 0 Capacity factor (%)  2016-2020  2021 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Capacity factor (%) 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 Age of reactor (years) 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 53 51 498 A steady improvement in reactor performance can be seen in the following chart, which presents the average capacity factors in each decade since the 1970s, as well as for 2020 and 2021. The spread of capacity factors in 2021 is broad ly similar to the average of the previous five years. Just over two-thirds of reactors have a capacity factor greater than 75%. Figure 8. Percentage of units by capacity factor Figure 9. Long-term trends in capacity factors Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Percentage of units Capacity factor (%) 25 20 15 10 5 0 30-35 35-40 45-50 40-45 0-30 55-60 60-65 70-75 65-70 50-55 80-85 85-90 90-95 75-80 95  2016-2020  2021 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Capacity factor % 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1980-1989 1990-1999 1970-1979 2000-2009 2010-2019 2021 2020  90%  80-90%  70-80%  60-70%  50-60%  40-50%  0-40%9 1.3 New construction Alongside eight large PWRs, in 2021 construction began on a lead-cooled fast reactor at Seversk, near T omsk in Russia, and a small modular reactor at Changjiang, in the province of Haiyang in China. T able 2. Reactor construction starts in 2021 Location Model Design net capacity (MWe) Construction start date Akkuyu 3 Turkey VVER V-509 1114 10 March 2021 Changjiang 3 China HPR1000 1100 31 March 2021 Tianwan 7 China VVER V-491 1100 19 May 2021 Seversk Russia BREST -OD-300 300 8 June 2021 Kudankulam 5 India VVER V-412 917 29 June 2021 Changjiang SMR China ACP100 100 13 July 2021 Xudabao 3 China VVER V-491 1100 28 July 2021 Kudankulam 6 India VVER V-412 917 20 December 2021 Changjiang 4 China HPR1000 1100 28 December 2021 San ao 2 China HPR1000 1117 31 December 2021 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS With ten construction starts and six reactors connected to the grid, the total number of units under construction at the end of 2021 was 53, four more than at the end of 2020. T able 3. Units under construction by region year-end 2021 BWR FNR HTGR PHWR PWR Total Asia 2 2 0 3 29 36 East Europe & Russia 1 6 7 North America 2 2 South America 2 2 West & Central Europe 6 6 Total 2 3 3 45 53 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS10 Figure 10. Construction times of new units grid-connected in 2021 Six reactors were connected to the grid for the first time in 2021. Sh andong Shidaowan is a notable new start as it consists of two 250 MWt high-temperature reactor pebble-bed modules (HTR-PM) connected to a single 200 MW e steam turbine. F uture larger plants would be based on larger numbers of HTR-PM modules. T able 4. Reactor grid connections in 2021 Location Capacity (MWe net) Construction start First grid connection Kakrapar 3 India 630 22 November 2010 10 January 2021 Karachi 2 Pakistan 1014 20 August 2015 18 March 2021 Tianwan 6 China 1060 7 September 2016 11 May 2021 Hongyanhe 5 China 1061 29 March 2015 25 June 2021 Barakah 2 United Arab Emirates 1345 15 April 2013 14 September 2021 Shandong Shidaowan China 200 9 December 2012 20 December 2021 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS The shortest construction times were achieved with the construction of PWRs in China and the Chinese-designed HPR1000 reactor at Karachi, P akistan. This continues recent trends, where series build and the retention of skil ls through ongoing new build programmes have helped contribute to more rapid construction times. Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS 2022 2019 2021 2020 2016 2017 2015 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2018 75 months 101 months 108 months 122 months 67 months 56 months Kakrapar 3 Karachi 2 Tianwan 6 Hongyanhe 5 Barakah 2 Shandong Shidaowan11 The median construction time for reactors grid-connected in 2021 was 88 months, up slightly from the 84 months recorded in 2020. Figure 12 shows the operational status of reactors constructed since 1986. Most reactors under construction today started construction in the last ten years. The smal l number that have taken longer are either pilot plants, first -of -a-kind (FOAK) reactors, or projects where construction was suspended b efore being restarted. In the case of Khmelnitski 3&4, Ukraine, two reactors that started construction in 1986 and 1987, there have been attempts to restart construction, but no active progress since 1990. Figure 11. Med ian construction times for reactors since 1981 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Median construction time (months) 132 120 108 96 84 72 60 48 36 24 12 0 1986-1990 1991-1995 2001-2005 1996-2000 1981-1985 2021 2020 2018 2017 2016 2011-2015 2006-2010 2019 88 84 117 103 58 74 66 76 58 120 81 92 8412 Figure 12. Operational status of reactors with construction starts since 1985 as of 1 January 2022 Figure 13 shows the total capacity of reactors of different ages operating in any one year since 1970. As time passes those reactors that remain in operation move into the next category every ten years. The total capacity of reactors that have been in operation for less than 10 years declined from around 1990, as the pace of new reactor start-ups slowed. With increased construction and subsequent commissioning of reactors in recent years the total capacity of reactors that have been in operation for less than 10 years has started to increase again. Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Number of reactors Reactor construction start date 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0  Permanent shutdown  Operable  Under construction 1988 1994 1996 1992 1990 1998 2000 2002 2004 2008 2010 2012 2006 2014 1987 1989 1986 1997 1993 1991 1999 2001 2003 2005 2009 2011 2013 2007 2016 2015 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 Figure 13. Evolution of reactor ages Source: World Nuclear Association and IAEA Power Reactor Information Service (PRIS) 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1970 1974 1972 1978 1976 1984 1986 1982 1980 1988 1994 1996 1992 1990 1998 2000 2002 2004 2008 2010 2012 2006 2014 2016 2018 2020 Capacity of Reactors (GWe) Years of operation  50 – 59  40 – 49  30 – 39  20 – 29  10 – 19  0 – 913 Figure 14. Reactor first grid connection and shutdown 1954-2021 Source: World Nuclear Association, IAEA PRIS Number of reactors added and shutdown 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -