Advanced Selection Materials in Solar Cell Efficiency and their Properties- A Comprehensive Review

Review Advanced Selection Materials in Solar Cell Efficiency and their Properties- A Comprehensive Review Ibrahim M. Alarifi1, 2, * 1 Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University, Al- Majmaah, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; i.alarifi@mu.edu.sa 2 Engineering and Applied Science Research Center, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Riyadh, Saudi Ara- bia; i.alarifi@mu.edu.sa * Correspondence: i.alarifi@mu.edu.sa; Tel.: (+966502222828; Ibrahim M. Alarifi, IA) Abstract: Solar cell layers technology has achieved global standing in the solar cell layers deposition process, and it covers the innovative methods and techniques in significant applications. Recent solar cell layers technology has an advanced interest in a refined approach to enhance performance and highlights the importance of recent proficient procedures for manufacturing. For example, the application is used to search for novel materials for solar cells layers to clarify the current energy crisis. The technological process and various types of solar cells depend on climate change. Among them, layers of solar cells and silicon wafer solar cells are very encouraging. Solar cell layers tech- nology has led to solar cells being a more reasonable active option in design and production. The productivities facilitated by new solar cells still need to be enhanced for the various processes in- volved in the additional enhancement from Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) microfilms to solar cell crystal structure dye-sensitized solar cells. The hydrophobic coating works as an anti-dust coating, enhancing efficiency and decreasing the cost of cleaning solar cells. In Saudi Arabia Majmaah City, most solar projects are in dry regions, where the dusty weather reduces solar cell efficiency. Therefore, combining these two properties and applying an anti-reflective and superhy- drophobic coating will increase solar cell efficiency by 20%. Solar cells crystal structure results are substituted with layers or new materials to balance environmental impact and toxic nature. Keywords: Copper indium gallium selenide layers; Solar cell efficiency; Self-cleaning; Superhydro- phobic coatings; Vapour deposition technique. 1. Introduction The quest for a viable alternative to hydrocarbons has drawn an excessive deal of consideration during the current energy crisis, and alternative platforms include solar, wind, and nuclear energy. Furthermore, an attractive form of limitless alternative energy is provided by solar cells. Solar cell placement can offer a thermal energy source and elec- tricity as well [1, 2]. On the contrary, the progression and integration of effective photo- voltaic cells are hampered by two primary aspects: efficiency and cost. Recently, research into more efficient and effective research in photovoltaics has resulted in the existing of emerging solar cells and enhanced conventional efficiency baseline designed CIGS solar cells [3, 4]. New chalcopyrite materials accomplished greater than 24% efficiency from expanding thin-film solar cells with efficiencies larger than 10% [5-7]. However, the elec- tricity price is approximately one order of magnitude higher when related to commercial prices from current solar cells [8, 9]. In this regard, this study aims to explore the materials for solar cell development generally, and the recent technologies obtainable. Photovoltaic cells are devices utilized for converting solar radiation into photovoltaic effects via electrical energy. The architecture is presented by photovoltaic cells based on two semiconductor areas with various electron concentrations. These materials can be kind n or type p, even though the material is electronically neutral in both cases. Holes Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 17 February 2021 doi:10.20944/preprints202102.0345.v1 © 2021 by the author(s). Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY license. flow from electrons, and the p region from the p-n junction via the n region when both the n and p regions come into contact. Additionally, the fixed ions produce an electric field near the junction in the opposite direction of diffusion, leading to an implication ex- isting. At stability, the diffusion is adjusted with the implication existing so that the net existing is zero. A potential barrier, in this regard, is framed at the p-n junction. Previously, different types of semiconductor materials and technologies were intro- duced for designing solar cells at low cost and with high conversion productivity. Con- ventional solar panels fabricated from silicon crystalline wafer modules are bulkier, mak- ing transportation complicated. These are, fundamentally, large-sized solar panels ob- served with glass panels. A bulky and heavier solar panel needs a large space, and per- haps big rooftops, to balance such large solar panels and provide high power applications. In this article, solar cell research and improvement focusing on solar energy s efficient application is studied based on different solar cells. This study presents the existing state of the art photovoltaic cell technology concerning materials utilized for fabricating de- vices, its productivity, and related costs. A comprehensive comparative examination has been performed on the four solar cell generations to focus on the different architectures, materials and methods, and their benefits and challenges. Theoretical physics of coatings and their applications are also discussed in this paper. Several approaches on both industrial and laboratory-scale levels have been reviewed for syntheses or fabrication of these coatings. This paper emphasizes the use of recent ad- vances in the application of solar cell materials. 1.1 Literature Review 1.1.1 Material Used in Solar Cells Development The solar cell s main material is silicon. Regarding the semiconductor material ap- plied, these materials have the properties of intensifying the absorption of the sun. Solar cells are mainly combined into initial, second, and third age batteries. The original battery is a silicon wafer. The second-generation battery is a thin-film solar battery (cadmium tel- luride, amorphous silicon, and CIGS battery), applied in photovoltaic power plants. The third is coordinated photovoltaic constructions or small independent electrical structures [10]. The solar cell thin film involved durability, aging material nascent voltaic photog- raphy (various meager cinematic developments). Table 1. Comparison of selected materials and their properties for solar cell efficiency. Material CuInSe2 Ge Ga Si CdTe Category Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Direct Band Gap (eV) 1.04 0.67 1.43 1.11 1.49 Absorption edge (µm) 1.19 1.85 0.87 1.12 0.83 Absorption Coeff (cm-1) 1.0 x 10 5 5.0 x 104 1.5 x 104 1.0 x 103 3.0 x 104 The third age unit has been checked and is not used for monetary purposes. No mat- ter how expensive solar cell innovation is and how low productivity is, improvement in solar cell innovation is still sought due to the growing demand and the prospect of unlim- ited flexibility. Figure 1 presents the types of the different materials utilized for photovol- taic solar cell systems, comprising mainly of silicon, cadmium-telluride, copper-indium- gallium-selenide, and copper-gallium-sulfide. The photovoltaic solar cell systems are dis- tributed into different types, as displayed in Figure 1. Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 17 February 2021 doi:10.20944/preprints202102.0345.v1 Figure 1. Solar Cell Classification. 1.1.2 Monocrystalline silicon solar cell These solar cells are primitive solar cells and are named ordinary or ordinary solar cells. As the name suggests, these solar cells are made up of a single silicon gem. These silicone gems are cut from huge, hollow, round measured rods [11]. The strategy used to assemble these cells is called the Cheklausz measurement; the cell s edge looks like an octagon. These solar panels show a typical example, such as small white gems [12]. The productivity of these batteries is between 17% and 18%. Figure 2 shows the production steps for the monocrystalline silicon surface. Fundamentally, the all-silicon wafer surface is degreased and cleaned. The wafer is ultrasonically washed, anisotropically digested, rinsed with deionized water, dried, and immersed in acetone, dissolving organic pollu- tants. Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 17 February 2021 doi:10.20944/preprints202102.0345.v1 Figure 2. Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell [13]. 1.1.3 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell Polycrystalline PV components are usually collected of various precious stones cou- pled together in a single cell. The battery is made using the cooling and hardening tech- nology of the protruding candy cane, in which the assembly efficiency is very high [14]. In 2008, these batteries were the most used solar cells, accounting for 48% of total solar cell production, increasing their performance to around 12-14%. Ribbon-shaped silicon is an example of a glass-like polysilicon solar cell [15]. This type of battery can usually re- duce silicon waste, but productivity is low. Figure 3 shows the first commercial solar cells based on silicon wafer technology, including the elevating progress. At present, solar cell contribution is more than 1% of the global energy demand, which shows that the price per kWh must be mitigated to become competitive in more regions globally and acquire substantially higher market shares. Figure 3. Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell [16]. 1.1.4 Second Generation Thin-Film Solar Cell Light film solar cells are identified as second-generation solar cells and are further practical than the original solar cells. These solar cells have an extremely thick, thin light retention layer, while the original silicon wafer cells have a light incident layer [17]. These advances have reduced the number of dynamic materials in the battery. This dynamic material is created as a sandwich between two glass sheets. Samples of such thin-film in- novations are amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride (CdTe), and gallium indium copper diselenide (CIGS) [18]. Figure 4 shows the materials promoted different types for thin- film solar cells. It was apparent that thin crystalline Silicon films represent the most used material of approximately 2.5 µm thickness. Other candidates include cadmium tulleride and amorphous Si, along with other thin-film materials. Modules for the second-genera- tion have been promoted, but they have not achieved the first-generation solar cells suc- cess because of module stability and technological issues. Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 17 February 2021 doi:10.20944/preprints202102.0345.v1 Figure 4. Thin-Film Solar Cell of Second Generation [19]. 1.1.5 Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells Silicon solar cells are a sample of the best widespread innovation in thin-film solar cells. These solar cells were the first to be produced in a modern way. They can be pro- duced at extremely low manufacturing temperatures, so different polymers and other laminated substrates can be used in moderation rather than other materials [20]. There- fore, these solar cells are very inexpensive and extensively used. The batteries are fabri- cated of miniature silicone, not glass or translucent. The aperture (1.7ev) of amorphous Si is larger than that of crystalline silicon [21]. The amorphous state here means that the sil- icon material contained in the battery has an apparent iodine effect in the opaque lattice structure. This is created by fixing the doped silicon material to the glass plate back using plasma-improved chemical vapour deposition (PICVD) [22]. The top cell is made of amor- phous silicon, leaves, and absorbs visible light from the base cell area infrared part. The fundamental disadvantage of amorphous silicon solar cells is their instability, which has increased from 4% to 8%. These batteries can be simply handled at high temperatures and are suitable for adverse weather conditions [23]. Figure 5 demonstrates the device-struc- ture in the experimental section, along with the present density-voltage characteristics and the fabricated solar cell EQE spectrum. Figure 5. Thin Film Solar Cell of Amorphous Silicon [24]. Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 17 February 2021 doi:10.20944/preprints202102.0345.v1 1.1.6 Cadmium Telluride Thin Film Solar Cell (CDTC) Cadmium is a dangerous substance, and the amount of tellurium is restricted. How- ever, this is the right choice for the further development of the financial photo gadget. In terms of the cost of translucent silicon, this is the leading photovoltaic innovation to date [25]. These batteries have a gap of material close to 1.5ev and have high adhesion strength. Therefore, it is the most preferred material for the innovation of light, and thin-film solar cells. These batteries have tape holes that can absorb light more efficiently and increase their efficiency [26]. During the initial assembly of these solar cells, the CdTe -based solar cells are made of polyglass-like materials, and glass is selected as the substrate. Subse- quently, various techniques can be used to cover the multilayer CdTe solar cells on the substrate [27]. This cycle is named education. These batteries are fabricated by sliding lay- ers of tellurium between cadmium telluride layers to build on junction diodes. As men- tioned above, CdTe has a gap size of about 1.48ev and a high absorption coefficient of 5x1015/ cm, so the efficiency is between 9% and 11% [28, 29]. However, the use of these cells must also consider the climate because cadmium is a toxic component (accumulates in humans, organisms, and plants), and so their removal during assembly and after use is a big problem. Consequently, proper cadmium control and the natural hazards were as- sociated with it limit the use of this innovation [30]. 1.1.7 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS solar cell) Comparable amorphous silicon, and cadmium telluride CIGS solar cells are also an innovation involving thin-film solar cells. The CIGS layer is lightweight and adaptable so that it can be stored on an adaptable substrate. CIGS is a mixed quaternary transmitter medium containing four precise components: gallium, indium copper, and selenium [31]. These batteries have high applicability of about 10% to 20%. The CIGS assembly is com- pleted through the following procedures: the electrochemical masking strategy, printing, and electronic wave declaration. It is made by placing indium, gallium, thin copper layer, and selenium on glass or plastic casing next to the cathodes on the back, and front to as- semble electricity [32]. The CIGS material substrate could be a polymer, glass plate, sub- strate, steel, or aluminum, and so on. It has a maximum retention factor and t